From Varnas to Voters: India's Long March Through Social Stratification

By: Akshat Agrawal
Category: Social Research | History | Society
Word Count: ~1300 words

Introduction: The Layers Beneath Our Society

India’s society, often described as one of the most complex in the world, didn’t become this way overnight. Over millennia, Indian social structure has evolved—sometimes naturally, sometimes through violence, occupation, and colonization. From the fluid varna system of the Vedic era to the rigid caste boundaries of colonial India and finally to today’s educational and cultural divides, the country’s social identity has continually morphed.

This post takes a long view of India’s social development—from Vedic times to the present—and asks a hard question: Are we progressing toward equality, or simply reshaping old divisions into new forms?

I. The Vedic Era: Functional Roles, Not Birth-Based Identities

The earliest reference to Indian social categorization appears in the Rigveda (circa 1500 BCE). Here, the varna system was broadly divided into three classes:

Brahmins – custodians of knowledge and rituals
Kshatriyas – protectors and rulers
Vaishyas – traders and agriculturists

Interestingly, the fourth varna, "Shudra," was either absent or only vaguely referenced—suggesting a system more based on occupation and roles than birth and heredity. This early society, while stratified, was not rigid and allowed some fluidity.

II. Post-Mauryan Period: Birth of the Shudra Class and Hierarchical Fixation

With the decline of the Mauryan Empire (circa 200 BCE), society witnessed the formal addition of the Shudra class, assigned to manual labor and service to the other three varnas. This marked a critical shift—from flexibility to rigidity.

Brahmanical texts began to define social roles more dogmatically.
Birth became a determining factor of one's occupation and social rights.
Upward mobility was restricted, and the caste hierarchy ossified.

This set the stage for systemic inequality, especially in agrarian economies.

III. Feudal Era: Land, Slavery, and Power Grab by the Elite

The post-Gupta feudal period (circa 500–1200 CE) saw the rise of land-owning elites who further entrenched caste distinctions:

Peasants and Shudras were dispossessed of land, often turned into bonded laborers.
Rajput chiefs and Brahmin families, often collaborating with foreign invaders like the Huns or Greeks, were granted vast tracts of land.
Religious sanction was used to justify economic subjugation, often tying caste with land ownership.

The state and religion became complicit in widening the gap between the privileged and the oppressed.

IV. Post-Vardhan Period: Fragmentation and the Rise of the “Fifth Caste” – The Mlechchhas

After the fall of the Vardhana Empire (7th century CE), India fragmented into small regional powers. During this era:

The term "Mlechchha" was introduced to describe foreigners or culturally “impure” groups.
Tribal chiefs, non-Sanskrit speakers, and lower-caste converts were categorized as outsiders.

This marked the origin of a racial-ethnic dimension to caste—wherein cultural and linguistic identity became tools of exclusion.

V. The Mughal Era: Professional Castes and Artisan Specialization

The medieval period under Turkish, Afghan, and Mughal rulers brought new structures:

Persian architecture, Sufi mysticism, and Persianized courts enriched India's culture.
However, professional caste identities emerged strongly: weavers, potters, masons, musicians, and other artisans were now locked into specific caste guilds.
Mobility between occupations diminished, and inter-caste collaboration became rare except under royal patronage.

The socio-economic mobility of artisans was controlled, creating a rigid skill-based caste system tied to economy and courtly privilege.

VI. The Colonial Era: Race, Colour, and New Caste Bureaucracy

The arrival of the British fundamentally restructured India’s social system:

The British categorized Indians as subjects, while keeping themselves as colonizers—a racial division backed by science and imperial ideology.
The 1857 revolt intensified this separation, leading to even stricter controls and caste-based censuses (from 1871 onwards).
Education was selectively introduced, giving rise to a new elite: the Brown Sahib—Indians educated in English, trained in administration but loyal to the crown.

The divide now included:

Race and colour (white vs brown)
Caste and religion (divide-and-rule politics)
Educated vs uneducated, urban vs rural

VII. Post-Independence India: Education vs Orthodoxy

With the Constitution of India (1950), caste-based discrimination was outlawed. However, a new binary emerged:

On one hand, a class of educated, liberal, scientifically minded Indians believed in modern constitutional values.
On the other hand, religious orthodoxy, caste identity, and communalism began to regroup under political banners.

This created an ongoing conflict between "rationalist citizens" vs "emotionally manipulated communities." In rural belts and even urban ghettos, superstition, social prejudice, and caste pride still hold sway.

VIII. The Current Conflict: Consciousness vs Cultural Conditioning

Modern India is seeing a subtle but powerful conflict:

On one side: Enlightened, reformist, inclusive thinkers—who promote unity, environmental balance, and ethical governance.
On the other: Casteist, communal, and consumerist mindsets—trapped in historical hurt, pride, and exclusionary ideologies.

This is not just a political or economic divide. It’s a war of consciousness. As the saying goes in Indian tradition:

"Anta Kāle Viparīta Buddhi" – In the end, wisdom is lost to those who fall from grace.

The greatest threat to Indian society today is not external, but internal regression into narrow identities and inherited prejudices.

Conclusion: Toward a More Conscious Society

The journey of Indian society—from the three-fold varna system of the Vedic age to the educational divides of modern India—is not just a tale of division, but also of resistance and reform.

Saints like Kabir, Gurunanak, Jyotiba Phule, Ambedkar, and Gandhi continuously tried to pull society out of its deep fractures.
The Indian Constitution remains a moral compass, though largely ignored in everyday behavior.
The challenge ahead lies in breaking the spell of inherited thinking—and fostering compassion, equality, and true self-worth.

A modern Indian society must ask itself:

Are we still prisoners of the past—caste, creed, colour—or can we be citizens of a shared, ethical, and inclusive future?

Akshat Agrawal Musings

Tuesday, June 24, 2025